Anthropology, 210 (Response for Chapter 7)

Your social analysis of the "mother" and "father" assignment is very valid, but I'd like to point out that there are times that adopted children have felt a sense of not belonging with their caregivers.  The definition of "mother" and "father" can be brought back to the nature versus nurture argument, where sometimes people will assign these roles to people who they feel fill those roles, be it within their household, outside the household, or even a figure they don't have true intimate ties with.  It's also variant between societies for the emphasis placed on parental figures, for instance, how some groups have communal caregiving, shared elders, and hold the genetic history in high regard.  These values would affect how a child would view themselves and their parental role assignments.

Anthropology, 210 (Kiowa Christianity)

The Kiowa nation were a Native American tribe who interacted with Christian missionaries in the late 1800s. As tensions rose between settlers and Native Americans, Christian reformers were tasked to westernizing the tribes through missionary work. At first there was resistance, but as more prominent members of tribes accepted the change, other followed suit. Missionaries were successful by not forcing the Kiowa to abandon their traditions, but instead, to interweave their native traditions and values with Christian ones. The tribe traditionally practiced a Sun Dance ceremony which was forcefully stopped by the U.S. Government in 1890.

With the abolition of their Sun Dance ceremony, it was a natural move for Christian traditions to fill the void. Churches became a strong centre of their community, with the focus on “the will of God” as the values they were following. Many hymns and songs were written specifically for their culture in their Kiowa language. These hymns actually gave strength to the individual Kiowa culture, language, and spirituality. The primary values of the village did not change with the adaptation of Christianity, they were just celebrated and expressed through a slightly different medium. The method is reminiscent of how Christianity itself adopted traditions from other cultures and religions to blend them together.

Anthropology, 210 (Response to Agriculture as a Mistake)

I agree with your assessment.  Forming groups and hierarchies is more of an innate character trait of social animals, including humans.  Even before stationary settlements, there was a concept of who were the leaders, who plays which role, and how much priority was given to that role.  Egos naturally come into play in a group setting.  It is a natural drive to want to be the best among your peers and have the best resources.  As you said, much more positive was gained from settlements than negative.  Just like technology, social interactions evolve over time.  Humans are just reluctant to change.

Anthropology, 210 (Agriculture and Diseases)

Before agriculture and the domestication of consumable animals, humans were nomadic groups moving between locations, foraging and hunting for food.  As agriculture developed, tribes were able to create small settlements and create more advanced social structures.  Some settlements were in naturally fertile areas while others were adapted using irrigation techniques.  Developments in agriculture and animal raising made it possible for larger populations to congregate in a single location.  Close quarters, waste build up, proximity to animals, and enlivened trade made populations susceptible to disease.

Cramped space makes disease easier to transmute from person to person, making the impact larger than a smaller population over a faster amount of time before people can have the chance to develop immunities.  With more people and animals producing waste faster than can be properly dealt with, some animal borne diseases transfered to humans.  Animals also carried parasites which compounded in moist geography and areas that were developed with irrigation.

Large production of resources and established settlements made trade more common and easier even across broad distances.  Remaining nomadic groups would travel from settlement to settlement with not only goods but also carried diseases with them between populations.  This pattern had many different effects, including weeding out the weak, crippling a settlement against invasions, or even completely wiping them out.

History of Civilizations, 111 (History Method; Algebra)

Mathematics are a study which has been touched upon by many ancient civilizations. Islamic mathematicians expounded upon a lot of Greek geometry, while mixing in discoveries by neighbouring cultures such as the Syrians and the Babylonians. Using these previous founding and their own ingenuity, Arabs scholars were able to develop algebra, the art of using arithmetic with unknown non-numerical objects in equations to find possible solutions for the unknowns. Other developments included the decimal place-value system and fractions, parabolas, and cubic equations.

The word algebra actually comes from the Arabic root جبر (jabr) which means “to set or fix” making الجبر (al-jabr) equate to “the fix” or “restore”, lending to the idea of solving the two sides of equations used in algebra lead to the solution. The findings found by scholars of this era are still used in modern times and have been the cornerstones to more advanced mathematics such as trigonometry.

Anthropology, 210 (Homo Erectus Response)

You covered a lot of the important differences of Homo Erectus from the earlier Homos.  Homo Erectus also had a large change in diet from their ability to harness fire and better hunt larger game.  They developed smaller teeth, bigger brains, bigger bodies, smaller stomachs, and less body hair due to their consumption of easier to eat and digest food cooked over a fire.  To catch this food, Homo Erectus has to use the advantage of endurance versus speed.  Three evolutionary developments, energetics, stabilization, and temperature regulation helped level the playing field. Energetics refers to the storage and transference of energy in muscular structure.  Stabilization is an adaptation of centre of gravity in the human structure, specifically using the large gluteus maximus to help with balance and core strength.  Temperature regulation helps with cooling the body, unlike many four-legged animals, humans have the ability to sweat through pores on their bodies to cool their core temperature without having to stop movement as well as having less body hair to hold in heat.  These adaptations gave Homo Erectus the advantage of keeping chase longer than faster animals with burst speeds, eventually tracking them to the point of exhaustion and killing them with blunt tools.


This crap is getting tedious, but keeping record in case there is a claim I didn't do it.

History of Civilizations, 111 (Compare/Contrast Aztec and Inca)

There are many different approaches to creating and maintaining an empire. In the Americas, there were two societies which had very contrasting approaches to these issues. These societies were the Aztecs of Mexico and the Incas in the Andes of South America.

The Aztecs were a military powerhouse, they conquered a territory then established balance of power with intermarriages and by installing locals into ruling positions. Groups absorbed into their empire were allowed relative freedom so long as they payed their taxes regularly to the main state, in turn they gained access to trade items they may not have other wise and the right to keep their lives. Those taxes were generally paid with feathers, gold, and tributes for sacrifice. In addition to the psychological aspect of sacrifice to keep their states in line, the Aztecs believed human blood was needed to sustain the status quo in the universe with their gods.

The Inca were also a strong military power, but unlike the Aztecs, they had an approach similar to the Romans in conquest. They built roads all across the Andes to connect their cities and suyu, or city-states, and used a system of knots in thread to communicate across distances in lieu of writing. The Inca did practice human sacrifice very sparsely, often sacrificing children for as the most pure of beings, the difference being they were not appeasing gods nor using it for psychological warfare. Being chosen was viewed as an honour and a way for the the children to transcend to live with the gods in paradise. These rituals were often held at volcanoes.

Anthropology, 210 (Homo Erectus as a Hunter)

There is some uncertainty over the diet of Homo Erectus.  Bones from large game such as elephants and baboons have been found alongside tools used by the species in cave excavations.  The origins of these bones have been contested, some arguing the bones may not have been remnants from consumption but collected and moved there by the inhabitants.  Other skeletal evidence has led some to believe in possible cannibalism, while others claim the damage could be from scavenger animals.  Homo Erectus did have fire as a tool, which is why their potential use of meat as a food source is such a point of curiousity.  Eating cooked food "led to their evolving smaller guts, bigger brains, bigger bodies, and reduced body hair" (2009, 194) as well as smaller teeth since cooked foods are softer than raw foods. (Anthro 128)  Other adaptations which support the idea of Homo Erectus being hunters are energetics, stabilization, and temperature regulation.  These adaptations are specific to human, giving them a strong endurance to fatigue while running.  Energetics refers to the storage and transference of energy in muscular structure.  Stabilization is an adaptation of centre of gravity in the human structure, specifically using the large gluteus maximus to help with balance and core strength.  Temperature regulation helps with cooling the body, unlike many four-legged animals, humans have the ability to sweat through pores on their bodies to cool their core temperature without having to stop movement as well as having less body hair to hold in heat.  These adaptations give humans the advantage of keeping chase longer than faster animals with burst speeds, eventually tracking them to the point of exhaustion and killing them with blunt tools.

 

Lavenda, Robert H., and Emily A. Schultz. "Chapter 5: What Can the Record Tell Us About Human Origins?" Anthropology: What Does It Mean to Be Human? New York: Oxford UP, 2008. 127-28. Print.

Anthropology, 210 (Anthropomorphizing Nonhuman Primates Response)

Oversimplifying any interaction is a poor methodology, as one cannot fully know another's mind. This is true for humans and animals alike. You can attempt to predict, to estimate what a reaction may be, but there is always the possibility for surprise. As humans we tend to oversimplify to make daily interactions easier. We see sloths as slow, deer as docile, koalas as cuddly, and cats as smart even though all have been documented as having opposite character traits. In terms of nonhuman primates, to assume the worst is a little unfair, as they follow behaviour patterns very similar to humans. They work to protect the collective, and reserve aggression for when they feel threatened. There are plenty of instances of wild gorillas interacting with humans in a positive manner. If anything, one could view animals as acting more rational than many humans, for their actions are guided by instinct and less by emotional analysis.

Video Games and Learning, (Assignment 1)

Super awkward video for a free online course I decided to add onto my work load for some crazy reason.

Anthropology, 210 (Miocene Primates)

The Miocene era was a period of change. The continents moved, the Earth cooled, and grasslands expanded. Early hominoid fossils were only found in Africa, as it was originally not connected to the other continents. Later, a land bridge formed and hominoids moved through the Arabian Peninsula into Eurasia then on into western Europe and China. Some also traveled into North America. Although there is fossil evidence to support these travels, there are very few fossils from the later years of this period. The lack of fossils make it difficult for anthropologists to decipher which may be the last common ancestor of African apes and humans. (Anthro 107)

During this tumultuous time, many species became extinct. Due to the climate changes, grasslands expanded across forest dominated areas, along with a new cilica-rich grass which was weeded out many herbivores who had difficulty eating the hardier grasses. (Miocene) One adaptation by hominoids was found in the species Proconsul heseloni. The Proconsul heseloni was a tree-dwelling proto-ape with a skeletal structure was a mixture of modern and old world. (Anthro 107)

Lavenda, Robert H., and Emily A. Schultz. "Primates of the Miocene." Anthropology: What Does It Mean to Be Human? New York: Oxford UP, 2013. N. 107. Print.

"Miocene." Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, 29 Sept. 2013. Web. 08 Oct. 2013.

History of Civilizations, 111 (Greek/Roman Contributions to Modern Times)

Man has looked to the stars for direction since the nomads. Stars have been used for navigation, divination, and to better understand the universe. They're impossible to miss, even with modern pollution clogging up the atmosphere. In the ancient times of the Greeks and Romans, scholars and plebeians alike looked to the sky for answers to many of life's questions.

Ancient astronomers learned how to predict a solar eclipse, they recognised the Earth was round and deducted that the Earth traveled in an elliptical orbit around the Sun. They mapped the constellations and tracked planet movement all with the naked eye.

One of the most well known contributions taken from these ancient times are the names of the five planets visible to the naked eye in the night sky. Both the Greeks and the Romans assigned names to the different coloured planets they noticed moving across the sky after Gods in their religion. 

Mercury was originally thought to be two different planets by the Greeks due to its' appearances in both day and night. Eventually they realised it was a single planet moving quickly through the heavens, the Greeks naming it after Hermes which was adopted by the Romans using their name for the same swift footed messenger God.

The planet Venus was named for much simpler reasons. As the brightest, and most beautiful, star in the night sky, Romans named this planet for their Goddess of beauty. Venus is the only celestial body named after a female, and was used as a symbol for womanhood even earlier by the Babylonians.

A splash of colour in the sky caught some attention, dubbing this planet “the red one” by many civilizations. This planet was given the name Mars by the Romans, their God of war, for this bloodlike colour. The largest of the visible planets has held the namesake of head deities for much of history; Marduk by the Babylonians, Zeus by the Greeks, and Jupiter by the Romans.

The Greeks viewed the furthest planet as sacred to their God of agriculture, whom the Romans called Saturn. He was also the father of Jupiter.

Anthropology, 210 (Biological Races)

The idea of biological races has actually been looked upon from multiple schools of thought.  The essentialist view actually supported the idea that differences among members of the human race were part of God's intention in their creation.  It's sometimes used to support acceptance of difference among people even in modern times, such as by feminists and anti-racism or anti-homosexuality groups.

Taxonomy takes the scientific approach of applying the definitions used for flora and other fauna deviations among subsets and applying them to deviations among groups of humans.  The idea that all fall under homo sapien sapien species with small differences such as skeleton and muscular vascular structure.  All races are on the same level, like a generation on a family tree.  Taxonomist Ernst Mayr defined the difference between subspecies and race, expressing that characteristics that are not strong enough in difference or do not have enough of a genetic basis are called races instead of subspecies.

Population theory viewed race as specifically genetic differences, via Mendelian inheritance.  Mendelian inheritance was the core of classic genetics, the basis for punnett squares and genetic traits.  A Mendelian trait would be a defining genetic make up that separates individuals from each other.  Population theory and taxonomy were popular around the same time, in the 1970s.

Finally, in the 1990s, Templeton wrote on the Lineage theory, saying that race was defined by a trait that continued through multiple generations and is still present after prolonged amount of time.

Most agree that race is not biological, but a cultural distinction of visual differences.  Personally, I believe that the cultural issues that have derived from scientific study of the variances among humans has coloured the view of simple documentation of differences among subsets.  Classifying finches for different beak shapes doesn't seem like a far cry from classifying humans for different facial structures.