Anthropology 210, (Modes of Exchange)

Reasoning and method of exchange have changed and developed through necessity over history.  In the ancient world, it began with reciprocity.  There are three kinds of reciprocity; generalized, balanced and negative.  Generalized reciprocity is the act of giving something without an expectation of something in return, such as when a parent takes care of a child knowing the child will not be able to return the favour for an extended period of time.  Balanced reciprocity is an exchange with an expected return of equal value.  An example of this would be most gift giving occasions, where gifts are exchanged with an assumed balance of value between gift givers.  Negative reciprocity happens when at least one participant of the exchange hopes to get something for nothing.  Examples of this range from bargaining to theft.

As civilization developed, new methods of exchange were also developed.  As organised leadership came to power, they acquired the ability to collect goods from all members of the group to then reallocate them to the group so all may have access to the things they need.  Socialism relies heavily on this concept, using taxes collected from the group to fund services for all, including those who could not have afforded them with their own income.

The most recent mode of exchange is market exchange.  Market exchange has multiple buyers and sellers, competing with each other to get the best deal.  A small scale example would be a bazaar.  All of these modes are still part of the world today.

History of Civilizations, 111 (History Method; Printing Press)

In the ancient world, education was a luxury not many could access or afford. Originally, the written word was mostly kept by monasteries, with monks copying manuscripts by hand for hours at a time. The work was slow and tedious, with most of the works focusing on religious messages. Sometimes older manuscripts were wiped clean for new ones, pieces may be doctored, or some would not be recopied for their dangerous substance.

Although there were a few innovations leading up to its conception, in around 1440 Johannes Gutenberg invented the printing press. Use of the printing press made mass production of books possible, making the knowledge they contain accessible to more people. Moving control from the church also allowed writers freedom of topics.

Dubbed as the “agent of change” in Europe, the printing press was used for mass communication, bringing together disorganised masses and bolstering a new middle class. It also fueled scientists, giving them a means to communicate with each other and share their findings, eventually leading to the scientific revolution. Printings made for more universal versions of texts, and led to a rise in literacy throughout Europe. Vernacular languages gained in popularity to replace Latin as the universal language, printing helped standardise spelling and syntax within languages which some claim led to the rise of nationalism in Europe.

The printing press was the first major step in breaking the pattern of having an educated elite, allowing information to travel quickly and accurately. It allowed for secular printing, encouraging the spread of scientific findings and suppressed the power of the church to doctor said secular writing. This freedom helped ease Europe into future enlightenment and revolution.

History of Civilizations, 111 (History Method; Kites)

The ancient Chinese Civilization were a very ingenious people, having created many everlasting inventions that drastically affected the course of history. One seemingly innocent example is the kite. A kite is a lightweight flying device made from silk on a bamboo frame. This simple design was used for a variety of purposes, originating with primarily military tactics. The first documented use was for a rescue mission in 549 AD to deliver a message. Military applications included delivery of munitions, intimidation and symbolism, issuing orders, and even launching men into the air for reconnaissance as early as 550 AD. Kites were also used for scientific discovery and domestic purposes in ancient times, such as measuring distances, testing the wind, and even fishing.

In later years, kites were adapted for weather experiments as well as Benjamin Franklin's renowned lightning experiment. They were used as a stepping stone for more modern flying apparatus, as well as alternative methods of propulsion and parachuting.

With all these great uses, there is also a fun side to kites that has lasted through the ages. Colourful displays of intricate designs representing different cultures, ranging from simple butterflies floating in the wind behind a child on the beach to complicated multi-flier dragons in festive parades. Some attach flutes, bows, or gourds to create musical whistling with the air flow. A hold over from the militant history of kites is kite fighting or running, where fliers actively try to cut each other down, maneuvering through the air with agile moves to either snag other kites or sever their tethers.

Kites have found their way into cultures around the world, use in celebration and even religious ceremonies. Although they have lost their military use since the modern aircraft has come into play, they still hold a place as a staple of the simple joys of childhood and a daydream of freedom for all mankind.

Anthropology, 210 (Response for 7Nov)

As you said in your response to mine, I'm glad you took a different perspective than I did.  I agree that art is often very personal and the interpretation can be different from person to person, often not following the original intention of the artist.  We looked at art more by it's intended audience, because that is an aspect of art.  Some is intended to share a message with others, while some is for personal use and may have been created with the intention of being seen by others.  There can even be a mixture of intentions, like with the example of the Mona Lisa you used.  It was created for mass audiences with secret personal meanings hidden within.  As with language, there are many facets to art.

Anthropology, 210 (Is Art a Universal Language?)

Art is a form of expression that transcends above the differences between humanity and focuses on the similarities. Diego Rivera, an artist of the 20^th century, said “art is the universal language and it belongs to all mankind.” As with writing, art is a form of symbolism. It is a physical manifestation of a myriad of social values of a society as envisioned by an individual or even a group. A project is created to show a point of view and illicit a reaction. The message can be positive or negative, broad or specific, local or global. Artists create their works with an audience in mind, and audiences respond to these works as if the works were addressed to them. (Anthro) 

 Art is a method of communication mankind has always employed, beginning with simple representation of daily life and outlines of hand prints on cave walls to modern graffiti commenting on social issues. Drawing and painting aren't the only everlasting artistic expression, from tribes dancing for the clouds to bring rain to ballet performances depicting entire lifetimes. Art is an important tool to use as a healthy outlet for emotional expression as well as a method of reinforcing central values of a culture. (Anthro)

Lavenda, Robert H., and Emily A. Schultz. "Primates of the Miocene." Anthropology: What Does It Mean to Be Human? New York: Oxford UP, 2013. N. 285-289. Print.